Utilitarian View on Modern Day Situations Essay Example for Free

Utilitarian View on Modern Day Situations Essay Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is the traditional understanding that the right act is the act which will actually, or most probably produce the greatest amount of happiness or pleasure throughout the world. The view was most famously founded by Jeremy Bentham, and later adapted by John Stuart Mill. Utilitarianism focuses on the consequences of an event rather than following strict rules and in general can be classed as a type of naturalism that offers a reductionist approach to ethics. Natural Law Natural Law is the theory that all humans can discover what is right, due to moral being written into our nature in some way. This theory suggests that there are some absolute ethical standards are the set by the way the universe is and the way humans are. Natural law lies a great deal of importance on applying reason and science and the use of inherent values such as fairness. Situation Ethics Situation ethics are based on the principle of love, and how all right and good actions result in the greatest amount of love as a result. Due to this, human beings should always act lovingly but the values of acting lovingly largely depend on the situation and cannot be predefined, instead the values of situation ethics are free to change in any shape or form from example as they relate the circumstances. Proportionalism Proportionalism is neither deontological or teleological, but rather it lies somewhere in between the two. It is an extension of Natural law, that can be easily compared with rule utilitarianism. It has moral rules (generally of the Christian variety) and says that it is never right to go against a principle unless there is a proportionate reason which would justify it. So some things are always right or wrong, but in certain situations it could be tolerated, e. g. murder is always wrong, but there may be an exception in a just war. Toleration is not saying something is right or wrong, but rather is used to choose the lesser of two evils. Virtue Ethics Virtue Ethics describe the right action to be the action which a virtuous person would do in the same situation, and for this reason, Virtue Ethics are not absolute, they are relativist. Instead of looking at the consequences of a particular action Virtue Ethics looks at the character of the individual and as a result provides us with guidance of what are the ideal characteristics of a good person. Utilitarianism Perspective In Vitro Treatment Even though IVF has been criticized because many people think that it is an unethical method of creating a child, utilitarians have said that it can bring about the greatest good for the greatest number of people, yet some people do not see how. Bentham’s hedonic calculus enables us to find out whether or not IVF will bring about this about. When Bentham came up with the idea of the hedonic calculus he asked seven questions that all try to predict. Regarding the length of the effects of IVF treatment, the answer to is that the effects will last a life time. When creating a child you don’t expect the effects to last for a short period of time, you want them to last for the rest of your life and the rest of the child’s life. For example the first test tube baby, Louise Brown, is now actually a mother herself. Furthmore, there is also the case of whether the embryo will attached to the inside of the mother womb and investigations have shown that there is a one in five chance that this will happen, even though this may seem a high risk factor there is a twenty per cent chance of at least one of the eggs taking if ten are fertilised. As a result of this IVF treatment, both the mother and the father will be greatly effected in the majority, because they will have to donate their zygotes and then have them fertilised. Afterwards the woman will have to have the eggs implanted into her womb and even then the embryos may not take. There is also the financial side to this treatment, it costs a lot of money and even then the embryos might not take to the woman’s womb therefore it would just be like burning money because it is, in a sense, money wasted. The doctors will be affected because what they are doing is hard work, but they will be affected in a good way because they are getting paid a lot of money for this. There is no saying how many lives the child will affect in the future. That maybe is one of the drawbacks of IVF treatment, the child might grow up to be hooked on drugs or be a rapists or serial killer but then don’t you take that risk with any child? Then the weakness is in Bentham’s hedonic calculus i. e. it is not possible by any means to predict the future yet we still try to through means like this. The IVF treatment could also take as long as you want it. Then there would of course be there is the process of waiting for the baby to be born if the IVF is successful but it could be born late or early, so again we cannot predict the future because of the fact that it is too uncertain. The final and question is whether the act of IVF treatment will cause happiness or un-happiness in the future, and my answer to this is that the future is so uncertain it is almost impossible to predict what is going to happen. From the evidence above it is clear that a utilitarian wouldn’t support IVF treatment, because it isn’t certain whether or not this treatment would avoid pain and create the most amount of happiness, because the IVF treatment might not be successful and then there is a lot of money wasted on embryos that didn’t work. There might be a lot of future un-happiness more so than future happiness. Then there is the factor that the IVF treatment takes a long time and might not last a long time because the baby may miss-carry. This is definitely one of the drawbacks to utilitarianism, because the future is so uncertain it is not possible to predict whether or not this baby will become something that will go onto help others and create happiness or be something that ruins peoples lives and ruins their own lives. Natural Law Perspective In Vitro Treatment The underlying principal of natural law is that as God has created us then we should let nature take its course. In doing this, we are therefore allowing the will of God to be performed. If you take this stance then clearly you would be against any form of fertility treatment. This type of treatment is seen as interfering with nature and therefore offends the principles of Natural Law. If a woman cannot conceive then it is natures way of saying that she should not have children we should not interfere with that decision is the view of the proponents of natural law. They would also be against genetic engineering and designer babies. Utilitarianism Perspective Voluntary Euthanasia The definition of the word Euthanasia is A good and peaceful death. Utilitarianism is a moral theory which stresses that the goal of moral endeavour ( or to put it another way, the measure) is the production of Good. any action is to be assessed by their production of good consequences. If the definition of Euthanasia is applied then as it is supposed to bring about good in the form of a peaceful death then utilitarianism can be brought into play because the result is good the action must be morally correct. Natural Law Perspective Voluntary Euthanasia Natural law holds that human beings by nature do good and avoid evil and these goods are observable goals that we are fundamentally born with in our nature. Natural Law deals in moral absolutes that cannot be broken regardless of the situation, The end never justifies the means, so no amount of suffering can justify an evil act. To aspect of protecting the innocent is seen to be very important by those that follow Natural Law, therefore it would seem that euthanasia is always wrong. However, the principle of the double effect must not be disregarded. As whilst it is seen as wrong to kill, is giving someone pain relief if a secondary effect is that they die wrong? In this situation, you are asking Is death a proportionate outcome? For this reason, while Natural Law doesnt support active euthanasia, I believe that in some cases it might well allow an action whose intention is merely to relieve pain, even if the action leads to death. The Implications of Benthams Theory on Animal Treatment In my opinion Jeremy Bentham would claim that the morally relevant question about animals is not Can they reason? or Can they talk? but, Can they suffer ? And, animals do in fact suffer, and do in fact feel pain. Therefore he would argue that pain is an intrinsic evil whether it is experienced by a child, an adult, or an animal. If it is wrong to inflict pain on a human being, it is just as wrong to inflict pain on an animal. For this reason, animals should be treated with the same amount of respect as human beings are treated as it has yet to be proven, it will likely will never be proven, that animals do not suffer. Why punish criminals? Utilitarian Perspective According to utilitarianism our duty is to do whatever will increase the amount of happiness in the world. Utilitarians view punishment as treating people badly, by taking away their life or freedom through capital punishment and imprisonment. In Bentham’s own words, he wrote, â€Å"all punishment is mischief: all punishment in itself is evil. † So what do Utilitarians think about capital punishment? At first it may seem obvious that they oppose it, because by punishing someone, this person will suffer thus will be unhappy. Because punishment is a means of producing suffering, nd suffering is bad, punishment can only be justified on utilitarian grounds if the amount of suffering is outweighed by benefits to society and that good cannot be produced in any other way that does not involve suffering. In other words, if punishment will bring about more good than bad for society, and that good cannot be produced in any other more advantageous way, then it can be justified on utilitarian grounds. Here are many ways where punishment can benefit society: First, capital punishment can help to reduce crimes by being a deterrent to would-be criminals. Someone who is tempted to commit a crime might not commit the crime now that he knows that he would be punished, thus introducing the threat of punishment. Second by making people who have already committed crimes incapable of committing future crimes. By executing criminals, they will be taken off the streets, they will be removed from this life, and further crimes that they were going to commit will be avoided. In this way there will be less unhappiness. Third, the act of capital punishment may in some case provide comfort and gratification for the victim’s family. The victim’s family may be comforted if they knew that the killer has received what he deserves. In conclusion, a utilitarian would advocate the death penalty only if it is the only way of generating benefits to the society which are greater than any harms, or evil which its use may cause. A society might be happier to know that a murderer can never kill again, and it may in fact make the murderer himself happier with his life ending immediately rather than spending his whole life imprisoned. How does Mills approach to justifying any majority inflicting pain on the minority address the difficulty of Benthams hedonic calculus? Mills approach to pleasure wasnt simply based on quantity, he instead described there to be two levels of pleasures, higher and lower. The higher pleasures were intellectual pleasures, whilst the mower pleasures were purely sensual. Mill also stated that most ordinary people should generally follow the traditional moral rules rather than calculate every situation. This is the reason why some people state that then surely John Stuart Mill is a Rule Utilitarian, who should generally following moral rules, even if the rules are decided through Utilitarianism. How does Rule Utilitarianism prevent the justification of executing any minority, as issued by the majority? Rule Utilitarianism ensures that the traditional moral rules should be followed, therefore whilst rules are in place, these rules may be decided by Utilitarianism. This will prevent extreme cases from taking place and general rules in society being overturned by the majority.

Ethics of Human Cloning Essays -- Cloning Argumentative Persuasive Arg

Ethics of Human Cloning    On February 23, 1997 Dolly the lamb was literally made. She is not the work of nature or nature's God but of man, and Englishman, Ian Wilmut, and his fellow scientists. Dolly came into being not only asexually but also as the genetically identical copy of mature ewe, of whom she is a clone. When the startling news was heard throughout the world, there seemed to be substantial debate over the issue since it would open the doors for the possibility of human cloning. Most of the concerns that the opponents have emphasized in the debates have been ethical ones, yet there is not one clear answer to this issue. (McCarthy, 1999, 98) The first effect of the Dolly announcement was to fire the public imagination. Commentators were quick to speculate about the possibility of cloning a human. The Los Angeles Times opined that such a discovery" opens the door to a "blade Runner" world of human replicants. The Wall Street Journal asked business leaders and newsmakers whether they would like to have themselves cloned. Feminists observed that the technique finally made the men superfluous. (Wilder,1999,p180) Even though the cloning of Dolly seems to be unique to the public, yet not in the history of the scientific world. The word "clone" comes from the Greek for twig, and horticulturists have been taking cuttings and growing new plants from them for centuries. The word came into current usage when the renowned British biologist J.B.S. Haldane suggested in 1963 that it would be soon possible to create genetic duplicates of plants, animals, and even humans. The populace has neglected that roughly thirty years ago, it became public that a clutch of tadpoles was cloned in England through a... ...are to Hong Kong." From the government to the scientists, there is no clear answer in what they believe in human cloning, which this paper has showed. Even though I have researched this topic a great deal, I still have not figured out what the public as whole stand is on this issue,    Work Cited Burley, Justine; Harris, John 1999) Human Cloning. Journal of Medical Ethics v25 pg108 Edwords, Fred (1999) How Biotechnology is transforming what we believe in and how we live. Humanist v59 pg23. McCarthy, David (1999) Human Cloning. Journal Of Medical Ethics v25 pg. 98 Miele, Frank (1999) How close are we to cloning time. Skeptic v7 pg48. Wilder, Bruce (1999) From Bastardy to Cloning: Adaptations of Legal Thought for Unorthodox Reproduction. Human Rights Journal of the Section of Individual Rights and Responsibilities v154 p80.

Malunggay can be used as water purifier Essay

Aside from its potential as biofuel feedstock, the seed of moringa, locally known as malunggay, could also be used for treating water, a Filipino scientist said yesterday. Dr. Isidro Sia, a professor of the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology of the University of the Philippines-Manila, said moringa seeds have been found to be one of the most effective water purifiers, based on international studies. He said the technology is being used in Kenya, Indonesia and Uganda. In the Philippines, he said UP has an ongoing project to study the water-purifying property of the local variety. According to research, moringa seeds treat water on two levels, acting both as a coagulant and an antimicrobial agent. â€Å"It is generally accepted that moringa works as a coagulant due to positively charged, water-soluble proteins which bind with negatively charged particles (silt, clay, bacteria, toxins, etc.) allowing the resulting ‘flocs’ to settle to the bottom or be removed by fil tration. The antimicrobial aspects of moringa continue to be researched,† it said. Solutions of moringa seeds for water treatment may be prepared from seed kernels or from the solid residue left over after oil extraction. Reports said moringa seeds, seed kernels or dried presscake can be stored for long periods but moringa solutions for treating water should be prepared fresh each time. In general, one seed kernel will treat one liter of water. The process of treating the water with moringa seeds would take at least one to two hours. â€Å"This clean water can then be filtered or sterilized to make it completely safe for drinking,† a report said. Moringa is also being promoted as animal feedstock. According to research, moringa has seven times the vitamin C in oranges, four times the calcium in milk, four times the vitamin A in carrots, three times the potassium in bananas, and two times the protein in milk. In addition to nutritional qualities, it has medicinal uses, external and internal. Its oil can also be used for cooking and for cosmetics and lubricants. Medical experts and herbalists attest to the long line of health benefits of Malunggay (scientific name: Moringa oleifera). And the most recent finding by researchers at the Pennsylvania State University (PSU) shows that crushed Malunggay seeds are potent in purifying dirty water. The research has scientifically proven the practice of Filipinos and Egyptians in using crushed malunggay to purify water. The PSU researchers claimed in a paper that the protein in the Malunggay seed kills bacteria by gathering them into clusters that sink into the bottom of a container. The protein fuses the membranes that protect the bacteria, thus destroying them in one fell swoop. The proteins are reportedly potent in their cleaning ability when harvested as mature seeds during the rainy season. Writing for Popular Science on June 11, 2015, Mary Beth Griggs said the role of Malunggay seeds as water purifier would be a boon to hundreds of millions of people with little access to potable water. With Malunggay seeds as alternative, those living in remote communities need not secure nanotech filters and light-based water purifiers. Indian researchers also discovered that Malunggay improves the motility of spermatozoa, making it a favorite among men who want to sire many children. Several years ago, the Department of Agriculture (DA) launched a campaign to popularize the propagation of Malunggay through the Biotechnology Program Office (BPO) then under Dr. Alice Ilaga and consultant Dr. Satunina Halos. It was even suggested that oil from Malunggay seeds could be extracted and used for various pharmaceutical purposes. Malunggay leaves are a good source of calcium, iron, ascorbic acid and phosphorous. Filipino boxing icon and Sarangani Rep. Manny Pacquiao credits soups with Malunggay leaves for boosting his energy during training. Moringa Water Purification In many parts of the world river water which can be highly turbid is used for drinking purposes. This turbidity is conventionally removed by treating the water with expensive chemicals, many of which are imported at great expense. Natural coagulants have been used for centuries in traditional water treatment practices throughout certain areas of the developing world. Crushed Moringa seeds clarify and purify water to suit domestic use and lower the bacterial concentration in the water making it safe for drinking. By  using Moringa seeds people will no longer be depending on expensive means originating from the West. Using Moringa to purify water replaces chemicals such as aluminium sulphate, which are dangerous to people and the environment, and are expensive. Moringa seed powder can be used as a quick and simple method for cleaning dirty river water. Studies showed that this simple method of filtering not only diminishes water pollution, but also harmful bacteria. The moringa powder joins with the solids in the water and sinks to the bottom. This treatment also removes 90-99% of bacteria contained in water. Water from varying sources will need different amounts of Moringa seeds powder because of the impurities present will not be the same. Experiments with a jar will help in working out the correct amount needed. Moringa In addition to food, shelter and clothing, water is one of our basic human needs and lack of potable water is a major cause of death and disease in our world.  Moringa oleifera seed contains 40 per cent by weight of oil, with the remaining presscake containing the active ingredients for natural coagulation. The high market value for the oil make the case for promoting the cultivation of the seed a strong one. The growth of Moringa oleifera trees by smallholder farmers should be actively promoted as a means of providing vegetables and raw material for oil extraction in addition to a simple, but effective natural coagulant for turbid river water. Using natural materials to clarify water is a technique that has been practiced for centuries and of all the materials that have been used, seeds of the Moringa have been found to be one of the most effective. Studies have been conducted since the early 1970’s to test the effectiveness of Moringa  seeds for treating water. These studies have confirmed that the seeds are highly effective in removing suspended particles from water with medium to high levels of turbidity (Moringa seeds are less effective at treating water with low levels of turbidity). Moringa Water Purification Theory Moringa oleifera seeds treat water on two levels, acting both as a coagulant and an antimicrobial agent. It is generally accepted that Moringa works as a coagulant due to positively charged, water-soluble proteins, which bind with negatively charged particles (silt, clay, bacteria, toxins, etc) allowing the resulting â€Å"flocs† to settle to the bottom or be removed by filtration. The antimicrobial aspects of Moringa continue to be researched. Findings support recombinant proteins both removing microorganisms by coagulation as well as acting directly as growth inhibitors of the microorganisms. While there is ongoing research being conducted on the nature and characteristics of these components, it is accepted that treatments with Moringa solutions will remove 90-99.9% of the impurities in water. Water Treatment with Moringa Seeds Solutions of Moringa seeds for water treatment may be prepared from seed kernels or from the solid residue left over after oil extraction (presscake). Moringa seeds, seed kernels or dried presscake can be stored for long periods but Moringa solutions for treating water should be prepared fresh each time. In general, 1 seed kernel will treat 1 liter (1.056 qt) of water. Dosage Rates: Low turbidity NTU250 2 seeds per 1 liter (1.056 qt) water INSTRUCTIONS TO CLEAN WATER WITH MORINGA SEEDS 1 Collect mature Moringa oleifera seed pods and remove seeds from pods. 2 Shell seeds (remove seed coat) to obtain clean seed kernels; discard discolored seeds. 3 Determine quantity of kernels needed based on amount and  turbidity of water; in general 1 seed kernel will treat 1 liter (1.056 qt) of water. 4 Crush appropriate number of seed kernels (using grinder, mortar & pestle, etc) to obtain a fine powder and sift the powder through a screen or small mesh. 5 Mix seed powder with a small amount of clean water to form a paste. 6 Mix the paste and 250 ml (1 cup) of clean water into a bottle and shake for 1 minute to activate the coagulant properties and form a solution. 7 Filter this solution through a muslin cloth or fine mesh screen (to remove insoluble materials) and into the water to be treated. 8 Stir treated water rapidly for at least 1 minute then slowly (15-20 rotations per minute) for 5-10 minutes. 9 Let the treated water sit without disturbing for at least 1-2 hours. 10 When the particles and contaminates have settled to the bottom, the clean water can be carefully poured off. 11 This clean water can then be filtered or sterilized to make it completely safe for drinking. DANGERS Secondary Infection: The process of shaking and stirring must be followed closely to activate the coagulant properties; if the flocculation process takes too long, there is a risk of secondary bacteria growth during flocculation. Recontamination: The process of settling is important. The sediment at the bottom contains the impurities so care must be taken to use only the clear water off the top and not allow the sediment to re-contaminate the cleared water. Additional contaminants: Moringa treatment does not remove 100% of water pathogens. Using Moringa oleifera as a replacement coagulant for proprietary coagulants meets the need for water and wastewater technology in developing countries which is simple to use, robust and cheap to both install and maintain. Water purified with oringa seeds, is acceptable for drinking only where people are currently drinking untreated, contaminated water.

We the People- Examination of the Relationship between the...

Introduction America has witnessed many events through history that influence our perception. Between the dramatic events of American Independence and the scares of the Cold War, we had vocal leaders aim to minimize the federal government’s power. The framers did so initially in the colonial era (Downes, 2012). Then, Ronald Reagan followed this concept through the Cold War (Love, 2009). Today, we live in a Post 9/11 world. This is a world that was so dramatically stricken by the terrorist attacks implemented on the World Trade Center (WTC) that we failed to carry a belief of minimizing the government’s constraints on the people. This society has no conflicts of the criteria presented in the USA Patriot Act (P.L. 107-56 Stat. 272) and has full faith in the rules of due process. Due process defined is recognized as â€Å"the regular administration of the law, according to which no citizen may be denied his or her legal rights and all laws must conform to fundamental, accepted legal principles, as the right of the accused to confront his or her accusers† (Samaha, 2006). Through the direct questioning of traditional and non-traditional college students, accompanied by the observation of interactions between people and police, we will conclude American people have a distrust of due process and find the police and government to be very intrusive. Especially, on the rights guaranteed to them through the Constitution. Purpose Statement This generation of our country is notShow MoreRelated Intrinsic Human Dignity and Equality in Relation to Liberal Democracy 1748 Words   |  7 Pagespolitical arrangement guarantees the rights of a people in relation to their government. Many Westerners, unfortunately, cannot give a philosophical explanation and/or justification for it. 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